Radiology Essays - Medical Physics, Medical Imaging,

Radiology Radiology Humanity, constantly learning, growing, and facing more challenges each second of the day. Whether the challenges are mental or purely physical. We have found more efficient, safer, and easier ways of doing the tasks we may face. From moving cargo, to sending information via the Internet. Probably the greatest accomplishments we have made, are in the studies of medicine/treatment. And to be specific, the study of radiology. Radiology, the process of working and viewing inside the human body without breaking the skin. By using radiant energy, which may take the form of x rays or other types of radiation, we are able to diagnose and treat many diseases and injuries. Both diagnostic and therapeutic radiology involve the use of ionizing radiation ( Beta, Alpha, Gamma, and x rays), with the exception of the MRI, which uses a magnetic field rather then radiation. Radiology is classified as being either diagnostic or therapeutic. Diagnostic radiology is an evaluation of the body, by means of static or dynamic images or anatomy, physiology, and alterations caused by injury or disease. A majority of these pictures are formed by passing a low or high level of x rays through the part of the body being examined, producing the static image on film. This image is called a radiograph or x ray picture. The image it's self may have many forms. It could be a common radiograph, such as a chest x ray; a tomograph (Greek for "section"), which is a radiograph obtained by timing the x ray exposure to correspond with the movement of the x ray tube and film in opposite directions around the plane of the body; or, finally, a computerized axial tomography (CAT or CT) scan. Which is a computer analysis of a sharply limited, thin x ray beam passed circumferentially through an area of the body, giving the doctor of Technician a cross-sectional image. Much like that of slicing a loaf of bread into sections. Other images may be obtained by using ultrasound or MRI, or by recording the activity of isotopes internally administered and deposited in certain parts of our body. This practice is called nuclear radiology or nuclear medicine. This include such techniques as a PET scan, or positron emission tomography, which uses patterns of the positron decaying to study metabolism reactions in the body. PET requires a cyclotron as an on-site source of short-lived, positron-emitting isotopes. The isotopes are injected into the patient along with a glucose related compound, and the positrons collide with the electrons in the body to produce photons. The photons are then tracked by a tomographic scintillation counter, and the information is processed by a computer to provide both image and data on blood flow and metabolic processes within bodily tissues. PET scans are particularly useful for diagnosing brain tumor and the effects of strokes on the brain, along with various mental illnesses. They are also used in brain research and in mapping of brain functions. Another form of imaging is ultrasound. Ultrasound, which uses very high frequency sound, is directed into the body. And because the tissue interference's reflect sound, doctors are able to produce, by use of a computer, a photograph or moving image on a television. Ultrasound has many application uses on the body, but is more commonly used in examinations of the fetus during pregnancy, because use of radiation may affect the outcome of the baby. Some other practices for ultrasound include examination of the arteries, heart, pancreas, urinary system, ovaries, brain, and spinal cord. And because sound travels well through fluids it is a very useful technique for diagnosing cysts( which are filled with fluid), and fluid filled structures such as the bladder. And since sound is absorbed by air and bone it is impossible to use a ultrasound on bones or lungs. The sound waves are produced by a random oscillating crystal, and are inaudible to humans. A instrument called a transducer is used to transmit the sound waves and receive the echoes. The transducer must be in close contact with the skin, and a jelly like substance is used to improve the quality of the transmission. And last of the diagnostic imaging tools is the MRI. MRI, which stands for Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Was a technique developed in the 1950's by Felix Bloch, and is the most versatile, powerful, and sensitive tool in use. The process of MRI was originally called NRI (Nuclear Resonance Imaging), but was found to be to confusing due to the fact that MRI's don't use radioactivity and ionizing radiation. The MRI generates a very powerful electromagnetic field, which allows the radiologist to generate thin-section images of any part

Das erstmalige Auftauchen der NPD in den 60iger Jahren und ihr Stand heute

Das erstmalige Auftauchen der NPD in den 60iger Jahren und ihr Stand heute Free Online Research Papers Das erstmalige Auftauchen der NPD in den 60iger Jahren und ihr Stand heute Die NPD machte im Jahr 2005 negative Schlagzeilen durch einen Eklat im Schsischen Landtag. Sie nannten die Bombardierung Dresden einen „Bomben-Holocaustâ€Å" und bezeichneten ihn als industriellen Massenmord. Die NPD- Politiker verweigerten sich an der Schweigeminute fà ¼r die Opfer des Nationalsozialismus teilzunehmen und verließen den Plenarsaal. Durch diese Entgleisung ist die NPD wieder in den Mittelpunkt der politischen Diskussion geraten. Es bewahrheitet sich somit wieder, dass sie antidemokratisch ist und noch immer den Holocaust verharmlost. Besonders im Osten Deutschlands trifft die NPD auf Resonanz mit ihren auslnderfeindlichen Parolen und ihre Einstellung gegen die EU. Sie schaffte es 2004 mit à ¼ber 9 Prozent bei den Landtagswahlen in den schsischen Landtag einzuziehen. Der Verfassungsschutz scheiterte aufgrund von Verfahrensfehlern die NPD zu verbieten, und so bietet sie sich weiter dem Whler an, der entweder blind im Geiste ist oder die NPD als Protestform whlt. Zu Zeiten hoher Arbeitslosigkeit und sozialer Unsicherheit wittern extremistische Parteien immer Morgenluft. Meistens haben sie nur ein schwammiges Konzept um Probleme là ¶sen zu kà ¶nnen. Meistens handelt es sich um S tammtischparolen, wobei Dinge immer vereinfacht dargestellt werden und die Bà ¶sewichter fà ¼r alle Probleme benannt werden. Wenn man die deutsche Geschichte betrachtet, waren wirtschaftliche und soziale Probleme oft die Ursache fà ¼r das Erstarken von extremistischen Parteien. Aufgrund von wirtschaftlichen und politischen Faktoren ist auch die NSDAP am 30.1.1933 an die Macht gekommen. 12 Jahre nationalsozialistische Herrschaft prgten die deutsche Geschichte entscheidend. In den 60iger Jahren begannen junge Leute zu fragen, wie konnte es à ¼berhaupt so weit kommen, dass so viele Menschen blind der NSDAP gefolgt sind und so viele Verbrechen von den Nationalsozialisten gegangen wurden. Die Studenten der 68iger Bewegung setzten sich intensiv mit dieser Zeit auseinander und begangen ihre Eltern und Großeltern nach ihrer Verantwortung in jenem Zeitraum zu fragen. Doch dass auch in den 60iger Jahren wieder rechtsextremistisches Gedankengut hochkam, lieg vor allem daran, dass die gr oße Zeit des Wirtschaftswunders vorbei war und Mitte der 60iger Jahre die erste Rezession einsetzte. Schon fangen wieder die Probleme an und es wurde nach den Schuldigen gesucht. So trat auch erstmals eine kleine Partei in die Ãâ€"ffentlichkeit und etablierte sich auch zum Teil auf Landtagsebene. Ganz im Schatten der 68iger Bewegung und der ganzen Geschehnisse stieg diese kleine Partei auf. Im Jahr 2006 gibt es diese Partei immer noch: Es ist die Nationale Partei Deutschlands, die man auch unter der Abkà ¼rzung NPD kennt. Wie bereits am Anfang beschrieben machte sie ihren Aufstieg auf Landtagsebene aufgrund ihrer Parolen perfekt und sitzt heute im schsischen Landtag. Auch in den 60iger Jahren saß sie in einigen Landtagen, aber damals wurde sie nicht so kritisch betrachtet wie heute. In der Gegenwart versucht die NPD wieder mit Propaganda die Whler zu ereichen. Die NPD wurde am 14.11. 1964 in Hannover von 17 Mitgliedern gegrà ¼ndet. Sie ging aus verschiedenen Parteien und Gruppierungen hervor. Zum ersten Vorsitzenden wurde Fritz Thielen gewhlt. Laut Literatur traten 433 Personen sofort in die NPD ein. Die Anzahl der Teilnehmer schwankt bei Grà ¼ndungsdatum zwischen 850 und 900 Personen. Viele NPD Mitglieder waren bereits Mitglieder der NSDAP, aber keiner von ihnen war ein Verbrecher oder Kriegsverbrecher. Die NPD hatte nun im darauf folgenden Jahr das Ziel, in die politische Parteienlandschaft der BRD einzutreten. Dieser Vorgang war bereits mit der Bundestagswahl von 1965 geplant. Ein weiterer Grund fà ¼r das Erstarken der NPD sind Protestdenken und die Erinnerung an die Vergangenheit. Die Mitgliederzahlen schwanken zwischen 28 000 und 40 000 Personen. Diese Zahlen sind jedoch nur Schtzungen, da der Staat keinen direkten Zugang zur Bundesgeschftsstelle hatte. Das Jahr 1966 war die Geburtsstunde der „Großen Koalitionâ€Å" zwisc hen CDU/CSU und SPD. Die NPD sah nun ihre Chance gekommen, die nationalistisch-konserativen und antikommunistisch eingestellten Kreise des Bà ¼rgertums zu gewinnen. Diese Kreise des Bà ¼rgertums sahen sich auch bedroht, als nun erste soziale und wirtschaftliche Schwierigkeiten auftraten. Die Jahre nach dem Kriege waren trotz demokratischer Verhltnisse autoritr geprgt. Das nationalsozialistische Gedankengut lebte in Teilen der deutschen Bevà ¶lkerung weiter. In den westlichen drei Besatzungszonen ging man nach dem Krieg sehr oberflchlich mit der Entnazifizierung vor. Ehemalige NSDAP-Mitglieder schafften es sogar in demokratischen Parteien aufzusteigen. Der ehemalige Bundesprsident Là ¼bke und der Bundeskanzler Kiesinger sind die zwei wichtigsten Beispiele dafà ¼r. Der Antisemitismus war noch immer in den Kà ¶pfen der Deutschen. Sie sahen die Juden als fremde Rasse an. Adolf Hitler war fà ¼r ein Drittel der Deutschen in den 60iger Jahren einer der grà ¶ÃƒÅ¸ten Staatsmnner der deutschen Geschichte. Viele Menschen konnten sich mit der Bundesrepublik Deutschland nicht richtig anfreunden und waren noch tief mit dem Dritten Reich geistig verbunden. Nun machten sich wieder Existenzngste breit und der Ruf nach einer starken Persà ¶nlichkeit wurden wieder publik. So war es auch am Vorabend des 30.1. 1933, als Millionen von Menschen vor dem wirtschaftlichen und sozialen Nichts standen. Nur war die Lage damals viel bedrohlicher, weil breite Schichten um ihre Existenz bangten. Das war aber in 60iger Jahren lngst nicht der Fall. Auch wenn es eine erste Rezession 1966 gab, so kann von einer Existenzkrise noch keine Rede gewesen sein. Im Jahr 2006 sieht die Situation schon anders aus. Wenn à ¼ber 5 Millionen Menschen von arbeitslos sind, ist die existenzielle Bedrohung wieder in greifbare Nhe gerà ¼ckt. Von daher kann man die Situation in den 60iger Jahren nicht mit der von heute vergleichen. Aber das Prinzip des Erstarkens von extremistischen politischen Gruppier ungen in Krisenzeiten ist das Gleiche. Vor allem in den Bereichen der Landwirtschaft, des Bergbaus und im Mittelstand gab es Mitte der 60iger Jahre eine erste wirtschaftliche Krise. Die Erschà ¼tterung der Menschen gab der NPD zustzlichen Auftrieb. Der Mythos von einem immerwhrenden Wirtschaftwunder zerplatzte wie eine Seifenblase. Da nun eine große Koalition der beiden Parteien regierte, gab es außer der FDP keine ernstzunehmende Opposition mehr im deutschen Bundestag. Es wurde nun die Außerparlamentarische Opposition (APO) gegrà ¼ndet, die viele konservative Bà ¼rger als Bedrohung empfanden. Auch die aufkommende Studentenbewegung verschrfte das Gefà ¼hl der Bedrohung. Die APO war der Gegenspieler zur NPD. Fà ¼r die NPD stand die AOP fà ¼r den Werteverfall und den Zerfall der traditionellen Normen. Die NPD machte sich dies zunutze, in dem sie Sicherheit durch Recht und Ordnung versprach. Die APO setzte die NPD mit dem Nationalsozialismus gleich und stellte damit das konservative Image der NPD in Frage. In der Deutschlandpolitik gab es ein Umschwenken bei den großen Parteien. Erstmal schloss die Regierungspartei 1964 Vertrge mit osteuropischen Staaten ab. Die NPD prangerte die Außenpolitik der Regierungsparteien an forderte die ehemaligen deutschen Gebiete zurà ¼ck. Die NPD konnte bei den Landtagswahlen in einige westdeutsche Landtage mit zum Teil beachtlichen Erfolg einziehen. Bei den Landtagswahlen in Baden Wà ¼rttemberg 1968 konnte die NPD mit 9,8 % Stimmenanteil fast den zweistelligen Bereich erreichen. Der Aufstieg der NPD dauerte bis 1970 an, danach verlor sie immer mehr an Bedeutung. Auf Bundesebene gelang es der NPD nicht, in den Bundestag einzuziehen. 1969 war es ihr mit 4,3 % aber fast gelungen in den Bundestag einzuziehen. Das war auch der Hà ¶hepunkt der NPD im Wahlergebnis. 1972 erreichte sie nur noch magere 0,6% Stimmenanteile. Da es die NPD 1969 nicht schaffte in den Bundestag einzuziehen und damit die 5% Hà ¼rde zu à ¼berwinden, waren viele NPD-Whler enttuscht und wurden fà ¼r die nchsten knapp 20 Jahre von der CDU aufgesogen. Das Scheitern 1969 war fà ¼r die NPD Ende der 60iger Jahre der Anfang vom Ende. Sie hat bei ihren Whlern eine bestimmte Erwartungshaltung nicht erfà ¼hlt und verlor damit Whler. Der Weg in die Bedeutungslosigkeit war damit gelegt und fà ¼r die nchsten Jahre sollte die NPD keine Bedeutung in politischer Hinsicht mehr haben. Die NPD scheiterte, weil sie nun in der Presse ein negatives Echo auslà ¶ste. Bei den Wahlkampfveranstaltungen 1969 kam es zu Tumulten gegen die NPD. Statt der versprochenen Ruhe und Ordnung war die Lage eher chaotisch, deshalb distanzierten sich viele Whler von der NPD und gingen zur CDU à ¼ber. Es fehlten etwa 300 000 Whlerstimmen fà ¼r den Einzug in den 6. Deutschen Bundestag. Bei den Landtagswahlen 1970 und 1971 verlor die NPD alle ihre bisher erreichten Mandate wieder. In finanzieller Hinsicht war der Bundeswahlkampf 1969 auch ein Desaster, d enn die NPD ging aus diesem mit 1,8 Millionen DM Schulden hervor. Durch innere Flà ¼gelkmpfe schwchte sich die NPD noch mehr. Es verließen immer mehr Mitglieder NPD, als neue dazukamen. Damit war das erste Kapitel der NPD Anfang der 70iger Jahre wieder abgeschlossen. Die NPD schaffte es nicht wirklich, weder aufgrund der 68iger Bewegung noch aufgrund wirtschaftlicher Schwierigkeiten, in der damaligen BRD auf Bundesebene prsent zu sein. Die NPD ist eine Partei, die in dem 1949 geschaffenen System fremd erscheint und heute verboten werden mà ¼sste. Ihre Existenz macht deutlich, wie krisenanfllig die Demokratie ist. Vor allem hetzt die NPD in heutiger Zeit gegen Schwchere, wie Auslnder, Homosexuelle und Behinderte. In der Suche nach dem Sà ¼ndenbock und einem Verantwortlichen fà ¼r bestimmte Verhltnisse nehmen die Menschen sich den einfachsten Weg, alles bei Schwcheren abzuladen. In der Zeit der 68iger Bewegung hat die NPD eindeutig den Kà ¼rzeren gezogen. Literaturverzeichnis Behrend, Katharina: Die Rolle nationalistischer Bewegungen im politischen System der Bundesrepublik Deutschland am Beispiel von NPD und Republikaner im historischen Vergleich, Regensburg 1996 Fascher, Eckhard: Modernisierter Rechtsextremismus? Ein Vergleich der Partei Grà ¼ndungsprozesse der NPD und der Republikaner in den sechziger und siebziger Jahren, Berlin 1994 Hans Maier: Struktur und Ideologie einer „nationalen Rechtsparteiâ€Å", Mà ¼nchen 1968 Research Papers on Das erstmalige Auftauchen der NPD in den 60iger Jahren und ihr Stand heuteHonest Iagos Truth through DeceptionStandardized TestingHip-Hop is ArtPersonal Experience with Teen PregnancyThree Concepts of PsychodynamicAnalysis Of A Cosmetics AdvertisementThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseHarry Potter and the Deathly Hallows EssayAppeasement Policy Towards the Outbreak of World War 2Definition of Export Quotas

Suicide Before and After Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Suicide Before and After - Essay Example This paper submits that while these measures are important, and in fact, are supported by a great weight of scientific evidence, in dealing with the family and helping them cope after the suicide of their loved one, it is best to treat the person as a unique individual, rather than as a statistic to affirm previously-projected patterns. It is important to discuss my first-hand experience on this matter, as this will prove to be relevant to the abovementioned thesis statement. My brother shot himself to death recently. He was married to his wife for 27 years and was the father of two boys. He was a quiet worker, albeit a bit quiet and not too comfortable in social functions. He decided to undergo therapy to cure his social disorder, and his sessions have largely been successful as was saw him become more relaxed, outgoing and openly affectionate. He then found out that his wife was having an affair, and the next day, he decided to end his life. Our family did not see it coming. We knew the revelation of his wife's affair had hurt him greatly, but we did not know that he was suicidal. We saw no indicators of that. InIndeed, the problem of suicides is a serious one. In the United States, more people die because of suicide each year than because of HIV or homicide. (SPRC Internet). That is why there have been many studies conducted about the "type" of person who is more susceptible to commit suicide. In the website of the American Foundation for Suicide Prevention, it was stated that at least 90% of those who kill themselves have a diagnosable treatable psychiatric illness, such as major depression, schizophrenia, or are suffering from alcohol or drug abuse, or have an antisocial personality. (AFSP Internet). Males are also three to five times more likely to commit suicide, and elderly Caucasian males have the highest suicide rates. (Ibid.) Hopelessness and pessimism are also an indicator of long-term suicidal risk. (Beck, et. al. 190). There are studies that have been conducted that state that family genetic history may be partially responsible for suicidal impulses of a human being. (Brent, at. al. 1) Of course, it is not difficult to conclude that a stormy family life - one riddled with conflicts and problems - can probably affect a person's coping mechanisms and make him more susceptible to suicide. These studies are good in the sense that they can provide a macro picture of trends and patterns, so that solution on a more general level may be reached. However, on a micro level, when one is dealing with an individual with a name and a face, foisting stastistics and data might not work. In order to more effectively prevent a suicide, the intervention must be one that operates on the premise that the individual is precisely that - an individual with with a unique personality, a unique emotion, and yes, a unique patchwork of problems that desperately cry for resolution. According to Edwin Schneidman, a clinical psychologist who is a leading authority on suicide, "Suicide is not a pointless or random act. To people who think about ending their own lives, suicide represents an answer

Toxic in Homes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Toxic in Homes - Essay Example The spot remover that supposedly kills bacteria-causing infection such as molds could have effects on the nervous system and could worsen heart ailments and lung conditions. A few dollars spent on diarrhea caused by molds is better than several thousands of dollars spent in treating heart diseases caused by mold-removing chemicals. To top this off, this is not yet looking at those houses located near industrial plants that emit more dangerous chemicals such as arsenic in mines 5 and asbestos in construction sites.   The supposed safeties these chemicals bring in the homes are not worth the risks they cause in the end. People are not without options regarding this matter. Several alternative products could be used and are just as effective while posing fewer dangers. 8 For instance, water-based products are available even in regular stores, and benzyl alcohol is a safer substitute for methylene chloride products.   There is no lack of safer alternatives as they have existed in the market for several years.

Eiffel Tower by Robert Dalaunay Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Eiffel Tower by Robert Dalaunay - Essay Example The essay "Eiffel Tower by Robert Dalaunay" explores Eiffel Tower, created by Robert Dalaunay. The piece has very little white space, which gives it a crowded, crushed feeling not normally associated with the Eifel Tower, which is usually shown majestically scraping an open sky. The painting plays with point of view in very interesting ways. Firstly, the aerial view and low contrast between the tower and the ground make the tower seem small, minute. Not being able to tell where the ground ends and the structure begins at first glance seems to shrink it. This, combined with the aerial view, gives the tower a smallness, showing how minute it really is when put in its context (even though the tower dominates the painting). This could make the viewer reflect on how big they are – if this tower, so large and majestic, can seem so small and crushed when viewed from a different angle, how small indeed must the viewer be, who is so much smaller than the tower? It puts human works, pai ns and troubles in the context of the wider world, and chastises our self-importance. This work does a very good job accomplishing what it sets out to do. The colors are bold and well chosen, and the play of contrast is especially interesting. Furthermore, it serves several purposes – as mentioned previously it seems to be making a poignant point about the paucity of human existence, but on the other hand it is still a very aesthetically pleasing work, using only bright colors that complement each other very well.

The Functions Of Discourse Particles English Language Essay

The Functions Of Discourse Particles English Language Essay According to Loraine K. Obler and Kris Gjerlow (Language and the Brain,1999, pp. 131-132), many bilinguals, in addition to speaking two or more languages fluently, have ability to employ elements of both languages when speaking with another bilingual and this is known as code-switching and it is governed by internalized rules. Code-switching is a very normal phenomenon in many parts of the world and one has always to take into account the distinction between, on the one hand, community (or national) and the other individual bilingualism and multilingualism and they are not necessary closely related. (Pride, The Social Meaning of Language, 1971, p. 26) There are many types of code-switching such as tag switching, intrasentential switching and intersentential switching. Kamisah Ariffin and Shameem Rafik Galea (Code Switching as a Communication Device in Conversation) found that their subjects employ code switching as a personal communication strategy. The strategies they employed are signalling social relationships and language preferences, obviating difficulties, framing discourse, contrasting personalisation and objectification, conveying cultural-expressive message, dramatising key words, lowering language barriers, maintaining appropriateness of context, showing membership and affiliation with others and reinterring messages. What is Malaysian English? Malaysian English or more commonly known as Manglish, is the colloquial version of English spoken in Malaysia and it is similar to Singlish, which is Singapore English. While Bahasa Malaysia is the national language, English is still widely used and is the second language in Malaysia. Many Malay words are being introduced into Manglish. The most common example is suffixing a sentence with the -lah particle which does not have any specific meaning on the sentence. Besides the influence of Bahasa Malaysia, there are also influence from other languages and dialects like Mandarin, Hokkien, Cantonese and Tamil in Malaysian English. Language as Social Semiotic Halliday (1973, 1985) proposed a systemic, functional view of language which sees it in the social function it serves. He believes that language is a systematic resource for expressing meaning in context, not the set of all possible grammatical sentences. (Jordan, Theory Construction in Second Language Acquisition, 2004, p.6) He believes that there are two main functions of language which are ideational function and the interpersonal function. Ideational function allows people to deal with their ideas, perspectives and feelings on a particular subject whereas interpersonal function allows people to deal with each other. He believes that the social function of the languages is more important than the grammatical aspects of the languages. For example, a person may not be able to construct a grammatically correct sentence but he/she is able to convey their idea effectively and is understandable by others. Communication Accommodation Theory According to Howard Giles and Peter F. Powesland, accommodation through speech can be regarded as an attempt on the part of a speaker to modify or disguise his persona in order to make it more acceptable to the person addressed. (Speech Style and Social Evaluation, 1975, p. 158) When we speak to people from different age, status, culture, etc, we tend to switch to a mode which the person we are speaking to is comfortable in. For example, when speaking to babies, we tend to use simpler words and shorter sentences and this is called baby talk. On the other hand, when speaking to a professor, we tend to switch to a formal language and use jargons in the field that we specialise in. Maya Khemlani David (Tolerance and Communication in Multi-ethnic Malaysia) found that the particles lah and meh are used in informal settings to signify emphasis on something or to soften a speech act like requests. The data collected from her research found that even though the Chinese students in that particular school are proficient in English, they tend to code switch for many reasons such as to emphasis, to quote someone else, for distancing or making a formal complaint and to signify solidarity with members of their group. Hence, she concluded that her findings show that people from other ethnic groups accommodate and switch to a language they are comfortable in when communicating with each other. It is very common for us to use the particles lah, ah, mah, etc in our daily life because we are so used to them and we often use them in our daily conversation. These particles only exist in Malaysian English and Singapore English. However, what are the functions of these particles? Hence, this paper is going to examine the functions of these particles in a conversation. Method A 15 minute conversation was recorded and transcribed. The conversation was among four ladies aged 24 and they are all university graduates. They are proficient in English and Bahasa Malaysia. Besides that, they are also proficient in their mother tongue. The reason this conversation is used is because it was a casual conversation among them. Casual conversation is chosen over formal interviews because we tend to switch to a formal language when we are in a formal setting. Hence, the result of the study will not be accurate because in standard English, we do not use the particles. These particles only exist in casual conversations because there is a need for the speakers to accommodate with each other. The transcription was analysed for the discourse particles used throughout the 15 minute conversation. Results and Discussion Particle Number of times Examples Ah 18 You apply where ah? Your father drive ah? Three or four ah. Aiyah 1 Aiyahà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Haiya 1 Haiya, just now we talked about Patricias video, we should record mah. Haiyo 2 Yea lah, haiyo. Haiyo, that one another big story lah. Hor 3 Just now he came horà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Then hor, he eat a lot you knowà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Lah 37 Just say lah. I think is last minute work lah. Its always like that one lah. Leh 2 I dont know leh. The clutch is like, dont know lehà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Lor 4 Two lor got subtitle. The second day one ok lor, senyap lor. Mah 6 Lagi syok mah. Orang Teluk Intan mah ok lah. They should mention mah they give one weekà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Wei 1 What are you doing wei? Wor 4 Eh, so nice wor Pangkor. Cantik wor tempat tu. I forgotten already wor. From the transcription, 12 particles were identified, namely ah, aiyah, haiya, haiyo, hor, lah, leh, lor, mah, wei, and wor. Based on the result we can observe that the particle lah is the most frequently used particle followed by ah, mah, wor, loh, hor, leh, haiyo, aiyah, wei and haiya. Most of the particles derived from Chinese expressions like mah, wor, lor, hor, leh, haiyo, aiyah, wei and haiya. On the other hand, particle lah derived from Malay expression. The results show that the particles can be divided into five categories according to their functions which are; asking a question, affirming a statement, expressing disappointment, explaining something and expressing uncertainty. Function Particles Asking a question Ah, wei Affirming a statement Ah, lah, mah Expressing disappointment Aiyah, haiya, haiyo Explaining something Hor, wor Stress the obvious Lor Expressing uncertainty Leh Particle ah which is a common expression in Chinese, functions as filler or breaking points and it is used to bring out a question force like No point helping friends who are not interested, do you agree with that, ah? (Mohan K. Muniandy et al, 2010) The data collected shows that the subjects tend to attach the particle ah and wei in their questions like Your father drive ah? and What are you doing wei? Besides that, the data also shows that particle ah is used when the speaker affirms a statement like Three or four ah. Particle lah derived from colloquial Malay and they have various functions. For example, they are used in declarative sentences whose functions may be termed informational, which is to say the speakers purpose is to let the addressee know something like Aku ada appointment lah. (Goddard, 1994) This particle lah is now common feature of colloquial Malaysian or Singapore English and they are used widely in conversations. From the data collected, we can see that the speakers used the particle lah when they are affirming a statement like I think is last minute work lah. The speaker was trying to tell her addressee that she feels that the problem caused was due to last minute work. Particle mah derived from Chinese and it has similar function with lah that is to affirm a statement like They should mention mah they give one week which means that if the person addressed in the conversation is given one week to settle something, she should be informed earlier by the relevant authorities. Particles aiyah, haiya and haiyo have the same function, which is to express disappointment. For example, Haiya, just now we talked about Patricias video, we should record mah shows that the speaker is expressing disappointment because she did not record their conversation on her friends video clip. A browse into Urban Dictionary shows that the expression aiyah originates from the Cantonese expression of disappointment or displeasure when something bad or wrong happens. Wee (2002) noted that Cantonese has a particle lo which shows some similarities with Singapore English lor. Hence, particle lor might originate from Cantonese. There are numerous functions of particle lor but according to the examples from the transcription, particle lor was uttered when the speaker was trying to explaining something that is obvious to the other speakers. For example, Two lor got subtitle. Hence, lor in this example is to stress the obvious. (Wee, 2002) When explaining something, the subjects tend to use particles hor and wor like I forgotten already wor. The speaker is trying to explain that she has forgotten the important information when she was asked about something. Particle leh was used when the subjects was explaining uncertainty. It is also originate from Cantonese. For example, one of the subjects uttered I dont know leh when she was asked about something because she was uncertain on what is happening or how to answer the question asked. Conclusion We can observe that most of the sentences uttered by the subjects were not grammatically correct. However, according to Halliday, the meanings conveyed in the utterances were more important than the grammatical aspect of it. There are numerous reasons why the subjects code switch to the particles when conversing in an informal situation. The main reason lies in the Communication Accommodation Theory whereby the subjects accommodate with each other by using the particles in the sentences they utter and this is known as convergence accommodation. This is because, they are from different ethnicity and have different mother tongue, so they need a common language to communicate effectively and Malaysian English is chosen over Standard English because they are comfortable communicating in Malaysian English. From the data collected, we can observe that most of the particles derived from Chinese, specifically the Cantonese dialect and also from Bahasa Malaysia. Two of the subjects are Indians but they do not use any particles that originated from Tamil. One possible reason is that these particles are widely used in their community hence they picked up these particles and use them in their conversation to add a better feel towards the subject they are talking about. There are limited research studies regarding to the use of the particles in Malaysian English. Not much research has been done to identify the functions of the particles in our Malaysian context. There is a need to have research studies that can identify origins and functions of the particles correctly. There are also questions left unanswered in this topic like how does a person know what particle to use when conversing? As mentioned above, most of the particles originate from the Cantonese dialect, so, how does a person from a different ethnicity understand and know what particle to use when he/she communicates with other people?

The View from the Bottom Rail Essay -- essays papers

The View from the Bottom Rail The Lewinsky Scandal†¦ A perfect example as to why we cannot accept everything at face value before carefully examining it first. Everyone thought President Clinton was behaving himself in the White House, but, as it turns out, he was most definitely not. This can be the same for history. We must carefully consider different aspects of articles so that we do no make the mistake of believing everything we read. In order to fully understand an article, we must understand the author that wrote it. It is necessary to examine prejudices, sources, information left out, and missing background information before accepting an article. This method of critical analysis allows us to better understand the article and therefore history because we are more aware of the authors and their possible mishaps. â€Å"The View from the Bottom Rail†, an article in After the Fact, provides an opportunity to examine different aspects of analysis. If we look at it carefully, then we will be able to determine if the thesis was proven effectively. In â€Å"The View from the Bottom Rail†, the authors, James Davidson and Mark Lytle, proposed, â€Å"For several reasons, that debased position has made it unusually difficult for historians to recover the freedman’s point of view.† Within the article, Davidson and Lytle cycled through different aspects as to why it is hard for historians to determine the â€Å"view from the bottom rail†. They questioned the validity of many sources that, if accurate, would have contained the perspective of an ex-slave. These sources included both white and black testimony. In order to examine these sources, the authors traced the topics using microcosm. Because they were covering a topic and not an event, microcosm was the most appropriate method of examining the subject. Davidson and Lytle first introduced a source. Then, they pondered over the different ways that the source could be biased. They took small segments from the source and used those to demonstrate why the source could not be taken at face value. For example, when examining the proposed source of a slave master’s account, Davidson and Lytle examined one aspect of this to make a conclusion. They determined that, â€Å"With slaves so dependent on the master’s authority, they were hardly likely to reveal their true feelings; the dangerous consequences of such indiscr... ...s old. The authors do question whether her mental status was viable or not. However, further background information was needed. It was imperative for the authors to examine the validity of this source before using it. It is not know if the ex-slave was capable of recalling accurate details of her life. Since the authors’ argument was that the same slave told two different stories depending on the circumstances of the interview, how do we know if the stories varied because of the circumstances or because of a poor or maybe even imaginative memory? This background information would make the authors’ arguments even more convincing. However, if we assume that the ex-slave was capable, then the argument is flawless. Overall, the article was well written. Only minor aspects were left uncovered. In addition, not much background information was needed. Also, the authors’ only had sparse and subtle prejudices. A variety of sources was used effectively. In the end, the thesis was proven convincingly. Almost all audiences would be assured that, â€Å"For several reasons, that debased position has made it unusually difficult for historians to recover the freedman’s point of view.†